Tom Marshall

Understanding your rights as a shareholder is crucial. Shareholders, as owners of a company, have specific rights that protect their interests and ensure they have a say in the company’s operations. This article highlights some of the common rights attaching to shares.  It is important to note that these rights can be varied or taken away under the terms of the company’s articles of association, a shareholders’ agreement, or other constitutional documents.  Therefore, shareholders need to scrutinise these documents to ensure they are happy with the benefits and restrictions that exist.  We commonly advise shareholders in this respect to assist them in being comfortable with what they are getting:

1. The Right to Vote

One of the most significant rights shareholders possess is the right to vote on important company matters. This includes voting on the appointment of directors, the issue of further shares, changes to the company’s constitution, and other significant changes. Typically, each share represents one vote, meaning shareholders with more shares have greater influence. This voting power ensures that shareholders can have a direct impact on the company’s direction and governance. 

2. The Right to Information

Shareholders have the right to access important information about the company. This includes financial statements, annual reports, and other disclosures that provide insight into the company’s performance and strategy. Transparency is key in maintaining shareholder trust and ensuring that they can make informed decisions about their investments. Companies are legally required to provide this information, and failure to do so can result in legal consequences.

3. The Right to Dividends

When a company earns profits, it may choose to distribute a portion of these profits to shareholders in the form of dividends. Shareholders typically have the right to receive these dividends, provided the company declares them. The amount and frequency of dividends can vary, but they represent a tangible return on investment for shareholders. It’s important for shareholders to understand the company’s dividend policy and how it aligns with their investment goals.

4. The Right to Attend and Participate in General Meetings

Shareholders usually have the right to attend general meetings, such as the Annual General Meeting (AGM), where they can ask questions, express concerns, and vote on key issues. These meetings are a platform for shareholders to engage directly with the company’s management and board of directors. Participation in these meetings is crucial for shareholders to stay informed and involved in the company’s governance.

5. The Right to Sue for Wrongdoing

If shareholders believe that the company’s directors or officers have acted improperly or breached their fiduciary duties, they have the right to take legal action. This can include suing for damages or seeking other remedies. This right serves as a check on the actions of the company’s management, ensuring they act in the best interests of the shareholders and the company.

6. The Right to Transfer Shares

Shareholders have the right to transfer their shares to others, subject to any restrictions outlined in the company’s articles of association or shareholders’ agreements. This right provides liquidity, allowing shareholders to sell their shares and exit their investment if they choose. It’s important for shareholders to understand any restrictions or conditions that may apply to the transfer of shares.  However, particularly in relation to unlisted companies it can be difficult to find a buyer.  Often the most obvious buyers are the other shareholders of the company who may wish to increase their holding.

7. The Right to a Residual Claim on Assets

In the event of a company’s liquidation, shareholders have the right to a residual claim on the company’s assets after all debts and liabilities have been paid. This means that shareholders are entitled to a portion of the remaining assets, if any. While this right is often of last resort, it provides a level of protection for shareholders’ investments.

The Importance of Shareholder Rights

Understanding and exercising shareholder rights is essential for maintaining a balance of power within a company. These rights ensure that shareholders can hold the company’s management accountable and influence key decisions. They also provide a mechanism for protecting shareholders’ investments and ensuring that their interests are considered in the company’s operations.

Challenges and Considerations

While shareholder rights are fundamental, there can be challenges in exercising these rights effectively. For instance, minority shareholders may find it difficult to influence decisions if they hold a small percentage of shares. Additionally, navigating the legal and regulatory framework surrounding shareholder rights can be complex.

Best Practices for Business Owners

For business owners, respecting and upholding shareholder rights is crucial for building trust and maintaining a positive relationship with investors. Here are some best practices:

1. Transparency and Communication: Regularly communicate with shareholders and provide clear, accurate information about the company’s performance and strategy.
2. Fair Treatment: Ensure that all shareholders are treated fairly and equitably, regardless of the size of their holdings.
3. Engagement: Encourage shareholder participation in general meetings and consider their feedback in decision-making processes.
4. Legal Compliance: Adhere to all legal and regulatory requirements related to shareholder rights and corporate governance.

Conclusion

Shareholder rights are a cornerstone of corporate governance, providing a framework for accountability, transparency, and fairness. For directors and shareholders alike, understanding and respecting these rights is essential for fostering a positive relationship with investors and ensuring the long-term success of the company. By prioritising shareholder rights, companies can build trust, attract investment, and create a stable foundation for growth.

This article is provided for guidance only.  Please contact us for further information and advice.

In the digital age, data protection is paramount, and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) remains a cornerstone of privacy law in the UK. As businesses continue to evolve and adapt to new technologies, staying compliant with GDPR is not just a legal necessity but a trust-building exercise with customers. Here’s an in-depth look at essential GDPR compliance tips for businesses.

Understanding GDPR and Its Importance

The GDPR, which came into effect in May 2018, is designed to protect the personal data of individuals within the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA). Although the UK has left the EU, GDPR principles have been incorporated into UK law through the Data Protection Act 2018, ensuring that similar standards are maintained.

Key GDPR Compliance Requirements

1. Data Collection and Consent:

Clear Consent: Ensure that consent for data collection is explicit, informed, and freely given. Use clear and simple language in consent forms, and avoid pre-ticked boxes.

Purpose Limitation: Collect data only for specified, explicit, and legitimate purposes. Do not use the data for other purposes without obtaining additional consent.

2. Data Subject Rights:

Right to Access: Allow individuals to access their data upon request. Provide information about how their data is being processed and for what purpose.

Right to Rectification and Erasure: Enable individuals to correct inaccurate data and request the deletion of their data. Implement processes to ensure timely responses to such requests.

Right to Data Portability: Facilitate the transfer of personal data to another service provider upon the individual’s request in a structured, commonly used, and machine-readable format.

3. Data Security:

Implement Security Measures: Use appropriate technical and organizational measures to ensure data security. This includes encryption, access controls, and regular security assessments.

Breach Notification: In the event of a data breach, notify the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) within 72 hours. Inform affected individuals without undue delay if the breach poses a high risk to their rights and freedoms.

4. Data Protection Officer (DPO):

Appoint a DPO: If your business processes large volumes of data or sensitive data, appoint a Data Protection Officer. The DPO will oversee compliance and act as a point of contact for data subjects and the ICO.

5. Data Processing Agreements:

Third-Party Processors: Ensure that contracts with third-party data processors include GDPR-compliant terms. This includes obligations to process data only as instructed, implement security measures, and assist with compliance.

Best Practices for GDPR Compliance

1. Regular Training and Awareness:

Conduct regular training sessions for employees to ensure they understand GDPR principles and their responsibilities. Raise awareness about data protection and privacy within your organisation.

2. Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs):

Perform DPIAs for high-risk data processing activities. Identify and mitigate risks to data subjects’ privacy and ensure that appropriate safeguards are in place.

3. Maintain Records of Processing Activities:

Keep detailed records of your data processing activities. Document the categories of data collected, purposes of processing, data retention periods, and security measures.

4. Regular Audits and Reviews:

Conduct regular audits of your data processing practices to identify compliance gaps. Review and update your data protection policies and procedures in response to changes in the business or regulatory environment.

Benefits of GDPR Compliance

1. Building Trust:

Demonstrating a commitment to data protection enhances customer trust and loyalty. Consumers are more likely to engage with businesses that prioritize their privacy.

2. Avoiding Penalties:

Non-compliance with GDPR can result in significant fines and reputational damage. Ensuring compliance helps avoid these penalties and maintains your business’s reputation.

3. Competitive Advantage:

GDPR compliance can be a competitive differentiator. Businesses that prioritize data protection can attract customers who value privacy and security.

Navigating GDPR compliance is essential for businesses. By understanding and implementing key GDPR requirements and best practices, you can protect your customers’ data, build trust, and ensure your business thrives in the digital age.

In the context of business sales, either by way of the sale of shares or purchase of assets typically from a limited company, the disclosure letter plays a pivotal role in defining and qualifying the warranties given in the sale agreement. This document is not merely a formality but a crucial component in protecting the seller against potential breaches of warranty claims post completion. It acts as a safeguard for the seller,. In this article, we delve into how the disclosure letter functions to qualify warranties in the sale agreements and its importance in the overall process of selling a business.

Understanding Warranties in Business Sales

Warranties in a sale agreement are statements or promises made by the seller about the state of the business. These can cover a wide range of aspects, such as the accuracy of financial records, the existence of legal compliance, ownership of assets, and absence of litigation. Warranties are designed to provide the buyer with assurances about the business they are purchasing. If these warranties prove to be untrue, the buyer may have the right to claim for breach of warranty, which can lead to compensation or even termination of the contract.

The Function of the Disclosure Letter

The disclosure letter is a document through which the seller qualifies the warranties given in the sale agreement. It serves several critical functions:

Clarifying Exceptions: While warranties offer broad assurances, the disclosure letter allows the seller to specify any exceptions. For example, if the sale agreement includes a warranty that the business has no pending legal disputes, the disclosure letter would detail any ongoing litigation, effectively modifying this warranty.

Limiting Seller’s Liability: By providing full and frank disclosure of any issues or deviations from the warranties, the seller can limit their liability for breaches of warranty.  A properly disclosed matter in the disclosure letter generally means the buyer cannot later claim a breach of warranty related to that matter.

Enabling Informed Decisions: For the buyer, the disclosure letter is a tool for informed decision-making. It highlights any risks or issues that may not be apparent from the sale agreement alone and may not have been highlighted in due diligence. This information allows the buyer to reassess the deal, potentially renegotiate terms, or request additional protections like indemnities.

Key Components of the Disclosure Letter

A comprehensive disclosure letter typically includes the following elements:

General Disclosures: These are broad statements about the business’s overall status. For example the contents of the business’s accounts are stated to be formally disclosed.

Specific Disclosures: These provide detailed information about particular warranties. Each warranty in the sale agreement will have corresponding disclosures that outline any known exceptions or issues related to that warranty.

Supplementary Documentation: Annexes or schedules including a bundle of documents often accompany the disclosure letter, providing supporting documents or evidence for the disclosed matters. This can include contracts, legal filings, or detailed financial reports.

Drafting and Reviewing the Disclosure Letter

Preparation by the Seller: The seller, with their legal advisors, prepares the disclosure letter by thoroughly reviewing the business’s records and identifying any potential issues that qualify the warranties. This process involves a meticulous examination of the warranties in the sale agreement and then the financials, contracts, regulatory compliance, and other critical areas of the business.

Buyer’s Review: The buyer and their legal team carefully scrutinise the disclosure letter. They assess the disclosed matters to determine their impact on the value and risk profile of the business. This review may lead to further inquiries or negotiations.  If the buyer has undertaken careful due diligence many matters may already be known to the buyer, but even if that is the case the seller should always ensure the disclosure letter contains full details, with supporting documents, of all matters that may otherwise be in breach of the warranties in the sale agreement.

Negotiations and Adjustments: Based on the disclosures, the buyer and seller may negotiate adjustments to the sale agreement. This could include changes to the purchase price, additional indemnities, or specific conditions to address disclosed issues.

Finalisation: Once both parties agree on the content, the disclosure letter is finalised and becomes a binding part of the sale documentation.

Impact on the Sale Process

Defining the Scope of Warranties: The disclosure letter details known issues in response to the warranties.  It narrows the breadth of the seller’s promises and clarifies what the buyer is accepting in the transaction.

Mitigating Future Claims: For the seller, a thorough disclosure letter serves as a defensive tool against future claims for breach of warranty. It documents what was disclosed at the time of the sale, reducing the risk of disputes and potential liabilities post-completion.

Facilitating a Clear Agreement: The disclosure letter fosters transparency, ensuring that both parties have a clear understanding of the business’s state. This transparency helps in setting realistic expectations and contributes to a smoother transaction process.

Supporting Due Diligence: From the buyer’s perspective, the disclosure letter is in effect part of its due diligence. It provides a deeper insight into the business’s actual condition and highlights areas that require careful consideration or further investigation.

Conclusion

The disclosure letter is a vital document in qualifying warranties in business sales. It serves to clarify and limit the scope of warranties, protect against future claims, and ensure a transparent transaction process. Both buyers and sellers must approach the preparation and review of the disclosure letter with diligence, as it significantly influences the sale’s terms and the parties’ liabilities. By effectively managing the disclosures, both parties can navigate the complexities of the sale with greater confidence and security.

This article is for guidance only and does not constitute legal advice. If you would like to discuss anything in this article, please get in touch. 

Introduction

Indemnity clauses play a crucial role in defining and allocating risks between parties to a contract. These clauses provide a unique approach to managing financial responsibility for potential liabilities.  A critical aspect that sets indemnity clauses apart from other clauses in the contract is the scope and extent of loss recovery they provide compared to the remedies available for a breach of a contractual provision.  An indemnities purpose, and the key differences in the amount of loss or damages recoverable under an indemnity versus those recoverable from a typical breach of contract.  Whilst indemnities offer a powerful tool for allocating risk, great care needs to be taken when agreeing to give one.

What is an Indemnity?

An indemnity is a promise by one party (the indemnifier) to compensate another party (the indemnified) for specified losses or damages arising from certain events or conditions. This agreement is typically outlined in the contract and is designed to provide financial protection and risk allocation.

Key Elements of Indemnity Clauses:

Defined Events: Indemnity clauses usually specify particular events or circumstances that trigger the indemnity, such as third-party claims or specific breaches.

Compensation Obligation: The indemnifier agrees to cover the losses, costs, or damages suffered by the indemnified party due to the occurrence of the defined event.

No Need to Prove Breach: Often, indemnities do not require the indemnified party to prove a breach of contract or fault; the occurrence of the event and resulting loss can be sufficient to claim indemnity.

Indemnity vs. Breach of Contract: Recovery of Losses

The distinction between the losses recoverable under an indemnity and those arising from a breach of contract is significant and can influence the scope of financial recovery available to the indemnified party.

Recovery Under Indemnity Clauses

Broader Scope of Recoverable Losses:

Indemnity clauses often cover a broader range of losses than typical breach of contract claims. This can include direct losses, indirect or consequential losses, legal costs, and expenses.

They may also cover losses that arise from third-party claims, which are not typically recoverable in standard breach of contract scenarios.

No Requirement to Prove Breach:

Under an indemnity, the indemnified party does not need to demonstrate that the indemnifier was at fault or that a breach of contract occurred. The primary requirement is showing that the specified event causing the loss has taken place.

This can simplify the process of claiming compensation and provide greater certainty and security to the indemnified party.

Immediate Compensation:

Indemnities often provide for immediate compensation upon the occurrence of the triggering event, allowing the indemnified party to recover losses promptly without needing to engage in protracted litigation.

Example: In a supply contract with an indemnity clause for defective products, if a third party sues the buyer due to defects, the indemnifier might be required to cover not only the direct costs of the defects but also legal expenses and any damages awarded to the third party.

Recovery Under Breach of Contract

Requirement to Prove Breach and Causation:

To recover losses under a breach of contract claim, the non-breaching party must prove that a breach occurred and that this breach directly caused the losses.

This typically involves demonstrating that the contractual obligation was not fulfilled as agreed and quantifying the resulting damages.

Limitation to Direct Losses:

Recovery under breach of contract is generally limited to direct losses that flow naturally from the breach and are within the reasonable contemplation of the parties at the time the contract was made.

Indirect or consequential losses are often excluded unless specifically addressed in the contract.

Mitigation Requirement:

The non-breaching party has a duty to mitigate their losses. This means they must take reasonable steps to reduce or avoid the damages resulting from the breach.

Failure to mitigate can result in reduced recovery of damages.

Example: In the same supply contract, if the supplier fails to deliver products as agreed, the buyer can claim damages for breach. However, the buyer would need to prove the breach, show the direct losses incurred (such as additional costs to procure the products elsewhere), and demonstrate that they took steps to mitigate those losses.

Practical Implications and Strategic Use of Indemnities

Understanding the differences in recovery between indemnity clauses and breach of contract provisions is crucial for effective contract negotiation and risk management.

Negotiating Indemnity Clauses:

Parties should carefully negotiate the scope and terms of indemnity clauses to clearly define the risks and losses they are willing to assume or cover.

Consideration should be given to the types of losses covered, the events triggering the indemnity, and any caps or limitations on liability.

Drafting Contracts with Indemnity Provisions:

Precision in drafting is essential to ensure that indemnity clauses are enforceable and provide the intended protection.

Contracts should explicitly outline the indemnifier’s obligations and the process for claiming indemnity.

Assessing Risk and Financial Exposure:

Indemnities can significantly affect the financial exposure of parties. Therefore, understanding the potential scope of indemnifiable losses is vital for assessing risk and making informed decisions.

Conclusion

Indemnity clauses offer a powerful tool for managing and transferring risk within contracts, often providing broader and more immediate recovery of losses than remedies available for breach of contract. By clearly understanding and strategically employing these clauses, parties can effectively protect their interests and allocate risk.  However, great care needs to be taken when agreeing to provide an indemnity as the usual contractual rules that limit the amount that can be claimed for a breach of contract may not apply and can significantly increase the indemnifying party’s liability.

For detailed advice and assistance with drafting or negotiating indemnity clauses, our experienced team at Cheyney Goulding  is here to help.  Contact us today.

Building projects can be a stressful and complicated process, and disputes with builders are unfortunately all too common. Whether you’re embarking on a small home renovation or a large-scale construction project, it’s essential to understand the most common areas of dispute with builders and how to avoid them.

Payment Issues

One of the most common sources of dispute between builders and their clients is payment issues. In some cases, clients may feel that they are being overcharged or that the work is not being completed to the expected standard. In other cases, builders may feel that they are not being paid fairly for the work they have completed.

To avoid payment disputes, it’s crucial to establish clear payment terms upfront. Make sure that both parties understand the payment schedule, payment methods, and any penalties for late payment or non-payment. Be sure to keep accurate records of all payments made and ensure that each payment is accompanied by a detailed invoice outlining the work completed.

Delays in Completion

Delays in completion are another common source of dispute between builders and clients. Many factors can cause delays, such as bad weather, material shortages, or unexpected construction issues. However, delays can also occur due to poor project management or lack of communication.

To avoid delays in completion, make sure that you have a clear timeline and schedule in place before the project begins. Ensure that the builder provides regular updates on the progress of the work and any issues that arise. In addition, establish clear procedures for handling any delays that may occur, including penalties for missed deadlines.

Quality of Work

The quality of the work completed is another frequent source of dispute between builders and clients. Clients may feel that the work is not up to the expected standard, while builders may feel that they have completed the work to the agreed-upon specification.

To avoid disputes over the quality of work, make sure that you have a clear contract in place that outlines the specific work to be completed and the standards that must be met. Inspect the work regularly to ensure that it meets your expectations and make sure that any issues are addressed promptly.

Changes to the Scope of Work

Changes to the scope of work can also lead to disputes between builders and clients. Clients may request additional work or changes to the original plan, while builders may feel that these changes are outside the scope of the original agreement.

To avoid disputes over changes to the scope of work, make sure that you have a clear understanding of what work is included in the project and what is not. Discuss any potential changes or additions with the builder before they are made and make sure that they are reflected in the contract and any relevant documents. This is particularly important in the current economic climate with the cost of materials increasing.

Poor Communication

Finally, poor communication is a common cause of disputes between builders and clients. Misunderstandings and lack of communication can lead to delays, errors, and other issues that can impact the success of the project.

To avoid communication problems, establish clear lines of communication between the builder and the client. Make sure that both parties understand how to contact each other and how often they should expect updates on the project’s progress. Encourage open and honest communication and address any issues or concerns promptly.

In conclusion, building projects can be stressful, but understanding the most common areas of dispute and how to avoid them can help to minimize stress and ensure a successful outcome. By establishing clear expectations upfront, maintaining good communication, and addressing issues promptly, you can help to ensure that your building project is completed to your satisfaction.

This article is for general information only and does not constitute legal advice. If you would like to discuss anything in this article, please get in touch. 

As a business owner, you may be wondering if it’s time to update your terms and conditions for customers. The short answer is that it depends on your business and the changes that have taken place since you last reviewed your terms and conditions.

In general, your terms and conditions should reflect your business practices and protect your legal interests. They should be clear, concise and easy for your customers to understand. Here are some reasons why you may need to update your terms and conditions:

Changes in the law

If there have been any changes to the laws or regulations that govern your business, you may need to update your terms and conditions to reflect these changes. For example, if there have been changes to data protection laws or consumer protection regulations, you may need to update your terms and conditions to ensure that you are in compliance.

Changes in your business practices

If your business practices have changed, you may need to update your terms and conditions to reflect these changes. For example, if you have changed your payment or delivery methods, you may need to update your terms and conditions to reflect these changes.

Changes in your products or services

If you have added new products or services to your business, you may need to update your terms and conditions to include these new offerings. You may also need to update your terms and conditions if you have changed the way you provide your products or services.

Protection of your legal interests

Your terms and conditions should protect your legal interests, such as your intellectual property rights, liability limitations, and dispute resolution procedures. If you have not reviewed your terms and conditions recently, you may be leaving your business open to legal risks.

In conclusion, it’s important to review your terms and conditions on a regular basis to ensure that they reflect your current business practices and protect your legal interests. If you are unsure whether your terms and conditions need to be updated, it’s best to consult with a legal professional who can help you navigate the complexities of the law and ensure that your business is in compliance.

This article is for general information only and does not constitute legal advice. If you would like to discuss anything in this article, please get in touch. 

The author generated this text in part with GPT-3, OpenAI’s large-scale language-generation model. Upon generating draft language, the author reviewed, edited, and revised the language to their own liking and takes ultimate responsibility for the content of this publication.

If you’re a business owner in England, you may be wondering whether you need a shareholders’ agreement. While it’s not a legal requirement, having one in place can be highly beneficial for your business. In this article, we’ll explore what a shareholders’ agreement is and why you may want to consider having one.

What is a Shareholders’ Agreement?

A shareholders’ agreement is a private contract between the shareholders of a company. It sets out the rights and obligations of the shareholders, as well as the procedures for making decisions and resolving disputes. It can cover a wide range of issues, such as:

1. How the company is managed
2. The roles and responsibilities of the directors
3. How decisions are made and what voting rights each shareholder has
4. What happens if a shareholder wants to sell their shares
5. How disputes are resolved
6. How profits are distributed
7. Protecting the company from unfair competition by individual shareholders

Why Might You Need a Shareholders’ Agreement?

There are several reasons why you may want to consider having a shareholders’ agreement in place. Here are a few:

Clarify Roles and Responsibilities

A shareholders’ agreement can set out the roles and responsibilities of each shareholder, as well as the directors of the company. This can help to avoid disputes and confusion down the line.

Protect Your Investment

A shareholders’ agreement can include provisions to protect your investment in the company. For example, it can specify how profits are distributed, or what happens if a shareholder wants to sell their shares.

Resolve Disputes

No matter how well a company is run, disputes can arise. A shareholders’ agreement can set out a clear process for resolving disputes, which can help to avoid costly and time-consuming legal battles.

Attract Investors

Having a shareholders’ agreement in place can give potential investors confidence that the company is well-managed and that their investment is protected. This can make it easier to attract funding and grow the business.

In Conclusion

While a shareholders’ agreement is not a legal requirement, it can be highly beneficial for your business. It can help to avoid disputes, clarify roles and responsibilities, protect your investment, and attract investors. If you’re considering setting up a shareholders’ agreement, it’s a good idea to seek legal advice to ensure that it’s tailored to your specific needs.

At Cheyney Goulding, we have extensive experience in advising businesses on shareholders’ agreements. If you would like to discuss your options, please don’t hesitate to get in touch.

This article is for general information only and does not constitute legal advice.

The author generated this text in part with GPT-3, OpenAI’s large-scale language-generation model. Upon generating draft language, the author reviewed, edited, and revised the language to their own liking and takes ultimate responsibility for the content of this publication.